Docosahexaenoic Acid: Health Benefits, Side Effects, Uses, Dose & Precautions (2024)

Agostoni, C., Harvie, A., McCulloch, D. L., Demellweek, C., co*ckburn, F., Giovannini, M., Murray, G., Harkness, R. A., and Riva, E. A randomized trial of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in infants with phenylketonuria. Dev.Med Child Neurol. 2006;48(3):207-212. View abstract.

Agostoni, C., Massetto, N., Biasucci, G., Rottoli, A., Bonvissuto, M., Bruzzese, M. G., Giovannini, M., and Riva, E. Effects of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on fatty acid status and visual function in treated children with hyperphenylalaninemia. J Pediatr 2000;137(4):504-509. View abstract.

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Agostoni, C., Zuccotti, G. V., Radaelli, G., Besana, R., Podesta, A., Sterpa, A., Rottoli, A., Riva, E., and Giovannini, M. Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation and time at achievement of gross motor milestones in healthy infants: a randomized, prospective, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2009;89(1):64-70. View abstract.

Aldamiz-Echevarria, L., Sanjurjo, P., Elorz, J., Prieto, J. A., Perez, C., Andrade, F., and Rodriguez-Soriano, J. Effect of docosahexaenoic acid administration on plasma lipid profile and metabolic parameters of children with methylmalonic acidaemia. J Inherit.Metab Dis 2006;29(1):58-63. View abstract.

Arterburn, L. M., Oken, H. A., Bailey, Hall E., Hamersley, J., Kuratko, C. N., and Hoffman, J. P. Algal-oil capsules and cooked salmon: nutritionally equivalent sources of docosahexaenoic acid. J Am Diet Assoc 2008;108(7):1204-1209. View abstract.

Arterburn, L. M., Oken, H. A., Hoffman, J. P., Bailey-Hall, E., Chung, G., Rom, D., Hamersley, J., and McCarthy, D. Bioequivalence of Docosahexaenoic acid from different algal oils in capsules and in a DHA-fortified food. Lipids 2007;42(11):1011-1024. View abstract.

Auestad, N., Montalto, M. B., Hall, R. T., Fitzgerald, K. M., Wheeler, R. E., Connor, W. E., Neuringer, M., Connor, S. L., Taylor, J. A., and Hartmann, E. E. Visual acuity, erythrocyte fatty acid composition, and growth in term infants fed formulas with long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids for one year. Ross Pediatric Lipid Study. Pediatr Res 1997;41(1):1-10. View abstract.

Auestad, N., Scott, D. T., Janowsky, J. S., Jacobsen, C., Carroll, R. E., Montalto, M. B., Halter, R., Qiu, W., Jacobs, J. R., Connor, W. E., Connor, S. L., Taylor, J. A., Neuringer, M., Fitzgerald, K. M., and Hall, R. T. Visual, cognitive, and language assessments at 39 months: a follow-up study of children fed formulas containing long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids to 1 year of age. Pediatrics 2003;112(3 Pt 1):e177-e183. View abstract.

Bazan, N. G. Cell survival matters: docosahexaenoic acid signaling, neuroprotection and photoreceptors. Trends Neurosci 2006;29(5):263-271. View abstract.

Bazan, N. G. Homeostatic regulation of photoreceptor cell integrity: significance of the potent mediator neuroprotectin D1 biosynthesized from docosahexaenoic acid: the Proctor Lecture. Invest Ophthalmol Vis.Sci 2007;48(11):4866-4881. View abstract.

Bazan, N. G. Neuroprotectin D1-mediated anti-inflammatory and survival signaling in stroke, retinal degenerations, and Alzheimer's disease. J Lipid Res 2009;50 Suppl:S400-S405. View abstract.

Bazan, N. G. Neurotrophins induce neuroprotective signaling in the retinal pigment epithelial cell by activating the synthesis of the anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic neuroprotectin D1. Adv.Exp Med Biol 2008;613:39-44. View abstract.

Bazan, N. G., Rodriguez de Turco, E. B., and Gordon, W. C. Pathways for the uptake and conservation of docosahexaenoic acid in photoreceptors and synapses: biochemical and autoradiographic studies. Can.J.Physiol Pharmacol. 1993;71(9):690-698. View abstract.

Beckermann, B., Beneke, M., and Seitz, I. [Comparative bioavailability of eicosapentaenoic acid and docasahexaenoic acid from triglycerides, free fatty acids and ethyl esters in volunteers]. Arzneimittelforschung. 1990;40(6):700-704. View abstract.

Berson, E. L., Rosner, B., Sandberg, M. A., Weigel-DiFranco, C., Moser, A., Brockhurst, R. J., Hayes, K. C., Johnson, C. A., Anderson, E. J., Gaudio, A. R., Willett, W. C., and Schaefer, E. J. Clinical trial of docosahexaenoic acid in patients with retinitis pigmentosa receiving vitamin A treatment. Arch.Ophthalmol. 2004;122(9):1297-1305. View abstract.

Biggemann, B., Laryea, M. D., Schuster, A., Griese, M., Reinhardt, D., and Bremer, H. J. Status of plasma and erythrocyte fatty acids and vitamin A and E in young children with cystic fibrosis. Scand J Gastroenterol Suppl 1988;143:135-141. View abstract.

Birch, D. G. A randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) supplementation for X-linked retinitis pigmentosa. Retina 2005;25(8 Suppl):S52-S54. View abstract.

Birch, E. E., Birch, D. G., Hoffman, D. R., and Uauy, R. Dietary essential fatty acid supply and visual acuity development. Invest Ophthalmol Vis.Sci 1992;33(11):3242-3253. View abstract.

Birch, E. E., Hoffman, D. R., Uauy, R., Birch, D. G., and Prestidge, C. Visual acuity and the essentiality of docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid in the diet of term infants. Pediatr.Res. 1998;44(2):201-209. View abstract.

Birch, E., Birch, D., Hoffman, D., Hale, L., Everett, M., and Uauy, R. Breast-feeding and optimal visual development. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 1993;30(1):33-38. View abstract.

Calder, P. C. The relationship between the fatty acid composition of immune cells and their function. Prostaglandins Leukot.Essent.Fatty Acids 2008;79(3-5):101-108. View abstract.

Carlson, S. E., Ford, A. J., Werkman, S. H., Peeples, J. M., and Koo, W. W. Visual acuity and fatty acid status of term infants fed human milk and formulas with and without docosahexaenoate and arachidonate from egg yolk lecithin. Pediatr Res 1996;39(5):882-888. View abstract.

Cheatham, C. L., Colombo, J., and Carlson, S. E. N-3 fatty acids and cognitive and visual acuity development: methodologic and conceptual considerations. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83(6 Suppl):1458S-1466S. View abstract.

Clandinin, M. T., Van Aerde, J. E., Merkel, K. L., Harris, C. L., Springer, M. A., Hansen, J. W., and Diersen-Schade, D. A. Growth and development of preterm infants fed infant formulas containing docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid. J Pediatr 2005;146(4):461-468. View abstract.

Clandinin, M. T., Van Aerde, J. E., Parrott, A., Field, C. J., Euler, A. R., and Lien, E. L. Assessment of the efficacious dose of arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids in preterm infant formulas: fatty acid composition of erythrocyte membrane lipids. Pediatr Res 1997;42(6):819-825. View abstract.

Cleary, M. A., Feillet, F., White, F. J., Vidailhet, M., Macdonald, A., Grimsley, A., Maurin, N., de Baulny, H. O., and Rutherford, P. J. Randomised controlled trial of essential fatty acid supplementation in phenylketonuria. Eur J Clin Nutr 2006;60(7):915-920. View abstract.

Cohen, J. T., Bellinger, D. C., Connor, W. E., and Shaywitz, B. A. A quantitative analysis of prenatal intake of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and cognitive development. Am J Prev Med 2005;29(4):366-374. View abstract.

Colombo, J., Kannass, K. N., Shaddy, D. J., Kundurthi, S., Maikranz, J. M., Anderson, C. J., Blaga, O. M., and Carlson, S. E. Maternal DHA and the development of attention in infancy and toddlerhood. Child Dev. 2004;75(4):1254-1267. View abstract.

Colter, A. L., Cutler, C., and Meckling, K. A. Fatty acid status and behavioural symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adolescents: a case-control study. Nutr J 2008;7:8. View abstract.

Conquer, J. A., Martin, J. B., Tummon, I., Watson, L., and Tekpetey, F. Effect of DHA supplementation on DHA status and sperm motility in asthenozoospermic males. Lipids 2000;35(2):149-154. View abstract.

Conquer, J. A., Martin, J. B., Tummon, I., Watson, L., and Tekpetey, F. Fatty acid analysis of blood serum, seminal plasma, and spermatozoa of normozoospermic vs. asthenozoospermic males. Lipids 1999;34(8):793-799. View abstract.

Courage, M. L., McCloy, U. R., Herzberg, G. R., Andrews, W. L., Simmons, B. S., McDonald, A. C., Mercer, C. N., and Friel, J. K. Visual acuity development and fatty acid composition of erythrocytes in full-term infants fed breast milk, commercial formula, or evaporated milk. J Dev.Behav Pediatr 1998;19(1):9-17. View abstract.

Courville, A. B., Harel, O., and Lammi-Keefe, C. J. Consumption of a DHA-containing functional food during pregnancy is associated with lower infant ponderal index and cord plasma insulin concentration. Br J Nutr 4-27-2011;1-5. View abstract.

Das, U. N. Essential fatty acids and their metabolites could function as endogenous HMG-CoA reductase and ACE enzyme inhibitors, anti-arrhythmic, anti-hypertensive, anti-atherosclerotic, anti-inflammatory, cytoprotective, and cardioprotective molecules. Lipids Health Dis 2008;7:37. View abstract.

Davidson, M. H., Maki, K. C., Kalkowski, J., Schaefer, E. J., Torri, S. A., and Drennan, K. B. Effects of docosahexaenoic acid on serum lipoproteins in patients with combined hyperlipidemia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J.Am.Coll.Nutr. 1997;16(3):236-243. View abstract.

De, Caterina R., Liao, J. K., and Libby, P. Fatty acid modulation of endothelial activation. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71(1 Suppl):213S-223S. View abstract.

Doornbos, B., van Goor, S. A., Dijck-Brouwer, D. A., Schaafsma, A., Korf, J., and Muskiet, F. A. Supplementation of a low dose of DHA or DHA+AA does not prevent peripartum depressive symptoms in a small population based sample. Prog.Neuropsychopharmacol.Biol Psychiatry 2-1-2009;33(1):49-52. View abstract.

Egert, S., Fobker, M., Andersen, G., Somoza, V., Erbersdobler, H. F., and Wahrburg, U. Effects of dietary alpha-linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid or docosahexaenoic acid on parameters of glucose metabolism in healthy volunteers. Ann Nutr Metab 2008;53(3-4):182-187. View abstract.

Egert, S., Kannenberg, F., Somoza, V., Erbersdobler, H. F., and Wahrburg, U. Dietary alpha-linolenic acid, EPA, and DHA have differential effects on LDL fatty acid composition but similar effects on serum lipid profiles in normolipidemic humans. J Nutr 2009;139(5):861-868. View abstract.

Engler, M. M., Engler, M. B., Malloy, M. J., Paul, S. M., Kulkarni, K. R., and Mietus-Snyder, M. L. Effect of docosahexaenoic acid on lipoprotein subclasses in hyperlipidemic children (the EARLY study). Am J Cardiol 4-1-2005;95(7):869-871. View abstract.

Engler, M. M., Engler, M. B., Malloy, M., Chiu, E., Besio, D., Paul, S., Stuehlinger, M., Morrow, J., Ridker, P., Rifai, N., and Mietus-Snyder, M. Docosahexaenoic acid restores endothelial function in children with hyperlipidemia: results from the EARLY study. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther 2004;42(12):672-679. View abstract.

Erkkila, A. T., Matthan, N. R., Herrington, D. M., and Lichtenstein, A. H. Higher plasma docosahexaenoic acid is associated with reduced progression of coronary atherosclerosis in women with CAD. J Lipid Res 2006;47(12):2814-2819. View abstract.

Farooqui, A. A., Horrocks, L. A., and Farooqui, T. Modulation of inflammation in brain: a matter of fat. J Neurochem. 2007;101(3):577-599. View abstract.

Fedor, D. and Kelley, D. S. Prevention of insulin resistance by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Curr Opin.Clin Nutr Metab Care 2009;12(2):138-146. View abstract.

Fekete, K., Marosvolgyi, T., Jakobik, V., and Decsi, T. Methods of assessment of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid status in humans: a systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr 2009;89(6):2070S-2084S. View abstract.

Fleith, M. and Clandinin, M. T. Dietary PUFA for preterm and term infants: review of clinical studies. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2005;45(3):205-229. View abstract.

Freemantle, E., Vandal, M., Tremblay-Mercier, J., Tremblay, S., Blachere, J. C., Begin, M. E., Brenna, J. T., Windust, A., and Cunnane, S. C. Omega-3 fatty acids, energy substrates, and brain function during aging. Prostaglandins Leukot.Essent.Fatty Acids 2006;75(3):213-220. View abstract.

Gale, C. R., Marriott, L. D., Martyn, C. N., Limond, J., Inskip, H. M., Godfrey, K. M., Law, C. M., Cooper, C., West, C., and Robinson, S. M. Breastfeeding, the use of docosahexaenoic acid-fortified formulas in infancy and neuropsychological function in childhood. Arch Dis Child 2010;95(3):174-179. View abstract.

Gawrisch, K., Soubias, O., and Mihailescu, M. Insights from biophysical studies on the role of polyunsaturated fatty acids for function of G-protein coupled membrane receptors. Prostaglandins Leukot.Essent.Fatty Acids 2008;79(3-5):131-134. View abstract.

Geppert, J., Kraft, V., Demmelmair, H., and Koletzko, B. Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in vegetarians effectively increases omega-3 index: a randomized trial. Lipids 2005;40(8):807-814. View abstract.

Geppert, J., Kraft, V., Demmelmair, H., and Koletzko, B. Microalgal docosahexaenoic acid decreases plasma triacylglycerol in normolipidaemic vegetarians: a randomised trial. Br J Nutr 2006;95(4):779-786. View abstract.

Gil, A., Ramirez, M., and Gil, M. Role of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in infant nutrition. Eur J Clin Nutr 2003;57 Suppl 1:S31-S34. View abstract.

Giovannini, M., Verduci, E., Salvatici, E., Fiori, L., and Riva, E. Phenylketonuria: dietary and therapeutic challenges. J Inherit.Metab Dis 2007;30(2):145-152. View abstract.

Gorjao, R., Verlengia, R., Lima, T. M., Soriano, F. G., Boaventura, M. F., Kanunfre, C. C., Peres, C. M., Sampaio, S. C., Otton, R., Folador, A., Martins, E. F., Curi, T. C., Portiolli, E. P., Newsholme, P., and Curi, R. Effect of docosahexaenoic acid-rich fish oil supplementation on human leukocyte function. Clin Nutr 2006;25(6):923-938. View abstract.

Green, J. T., Orr, S. K., and Bazinet, R. P. The emerging role of group VI calcium-independent phospholipase A2 in releasing docosahexaenoic acid from brain phospholipids. J Lipid Res 2008;49(5):939-944. View abstract.

Grenyer, B. F., Crowe, T., Meyer, B., Owen, A. J., Grigonis-Deane, E. M., Caputi, P., and Howe, P. R. Fish oil supplementation in the treatment of major depression: a randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Prog.Neuropsychopharmacol.Biol Psychiatry 10-1-2007;31(7):1393-1396. View abstract.

Grimsgaard, S., Bonaa, K. H., Hansen, J. B., and Myhre, E. S. Effects of highly purified eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid on hemodynamics in humans. Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 1998;68(1):52-59. View abstract.

Grynberg, A. Hypertension prevention: from nutrients to (fortified) foods to dietary patterns. Focus on fatty acids. J Hum Hypertens 2005;19 Suppl 3:S25-S33. View abstract.

Haggarty, P. Effect of placental function on fatty acid requirements during pregnancy. Eur J Clin Nutr 2004;58(12):1559-1570. View abstract.

Halvorsen, D. S., Hansen, J. B., Grimsgaard, S., Bonaa, K. H., Kierulf, P., and Nordoy, A. The effect of highly purified eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids on monocyte phagocytosis in man. Lipids 1997;32(9):935-942. View abstract.

Hamazaki, T., Sawazaki, S., Asaoka, E., Itomura, M., Mizushima, Y., Yazawa, K., Kuwamori, T., and Kobayashi, M. Docosahexaenoic acid-rich fish oil does not affect serum lipid concentrations of normolipidemic young adults. J.Nutr. 1996;126(11):2784-2789. View abstract.

Hamazaki, T., Sawazaki, S., Nagasawa, T., Nagao, Y., Kanagawa, Y., and Yazawa, K. Administration of docosahexaenoic acid influences behavior and plasma catecholamine levels at times of psychological stress. Lipids 1999;34 Suppl:S33-S37. View abstract.

Hammond, B. G., Mayhew, D. A., Kier, L. D., Mast, R. W., and Sander, W. J. Safety assessment of DHA-rich microalgae from Schizochytrium sp. Regul.Toxicol.Pharmacol. 2002;35(2 Pt 1):255-265. View abstract.

Hanebutt, F. L., Demmelmair, H., Schiessl, B., Larque, E., and Koletzko, B. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LC-PUFA) transfer across the placenta. Clin Nutr 2008;27(5):685-693. View abstract.

Hansen, J. B., Grimsgaard, S., Nilsen, H., Nordoy, A., and Bonaa, K. H. Effects of highly purified eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid on fatty acid absorption, incorporation into serum phospholipids and postprandial triglyceridemia. Lipids 1998;33(2):131-138. View abstract.

Hansen, J., Grimsgaard, S., Nordoy, A., and Bonaa, K. H. Dietary supplementation with highly purified eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid does not influence PAI-1 activity. Thromb.Res. 4-15-2000;98(2):123-132. View abstract.

Hassan, I. R. and Gronert, K. Acute changes in dietary omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids have a pronounced impact on survival following ischemic renal injury and formation of renoprotective docosahexaenoic acid-derived protectin D1. J Immunol. 3-1-2009;182(5):3223-3232. View abstract.

Hayashi, H., Tanaka, Y., Hibino, H., Umeda, Y., Kawamitsu, H., Fujimoto, H., and Amakawa, T. Beneficial effect of salmon roe phosphatidylcholine in chronic liver disease. Curr Med Res Opin. 1999;15(3):177-184. View abstract.

Heird, W. C. and Lapillonne, A. The role of essential fatty acids in development. Annu Rev Nutr 2005;25:549-571. View abstract.

Helland, I. B., Saugstad, O. D., Smith, L., Saarem, K., Solvoll, K., Ganes, T., and Drevon, C. A. Similar effects on infants of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids supplementation to pregnant and lactating women. Pediatrics 2001;108(5):E82. View abstract.

Hoffman, D. R., Birch, E. E., Birch, D. G., Uauy, R., Castaneda, Y. S., Lapus, M. G., and Wheaton, D. H. Impact of early dietary intake and blood lipid composition of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on later visual development. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2000;31(5):540-553. View abstract.

Hoffman, D. R., Locke, K. G., Wheaton, D. H., Fish, G. E., Spencer, R., and Birch, D. G. A randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial of docosahexaenoic acid supplementation for X-linked retinitis pigmentosa. Am.J.Ophthalmol. 2004;137(4):704-718. View abstract.

Hoffman, D. R., Theuer, R. C., Castaneda, Y. S., Wheaton, D. H., Bosworth, R. G., O'Connor, A. R., Morale, S. E., Wiedemann, L. E., and Birch, E. E. Maturation of visual acuity is accelerated in breast-fed term infants fed baby food containing DHA-enriched egg yolk. J.Nutr. 2004;134(9):2307-2313. View abstract.

Hoffman, D. R., Wheaton, D. K., James, K. J., Tuazon, M., Diersen-Schade, D. A., Harris, C. L., Stolz, S., and Berseth, C. L. Docosahexaenoic acid in red blood cells of term infants receiving two levels of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2006;42(3):287-292. View abstract.

Horby, Jorgensen M., Holmer, G., Lund, P., Hernell, O., and Michaelsen, K. F. Effect of formula supplemented with docosahexaenoic acid and gamma-linolenic acid on fatty acid status and visual acuity in term infants. J.Pediatr.Gastroenterol.Nutr. 1998;26(4):412-421. View abstract.

Horrocks, L. A. and Farooqui, A. A. Docosahexaenoic acid in the diet: its importance in maintenance and restoration of neural membrane function. Prostaglandins Leukot.Essent.Fatty Acids 2004;70(4):361-372. View abstract.

Innis, S. M. Perinatal biochemistry and physiology of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Pediatr 2003;143(4 Suppl):S1-S8. View abstract.

Innis, S. M., Adamkin, D. H., Hall, R. T., Kalhan, S. C., Lair, C., Lim, M., Stevens, D. C., Twist, P. F., Diersen-Schade, D. A., Harris, C. L., Merkel, K. L., and Hansen, J. W. Docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid enhance growth with no adverse effects in preterm infants fed formula. J.Pediatr. 2002;140(5):547-554. View abstract.

Innis, S. M., Akrabawi, S. S., Diersen-Schade, D. A., Dobson, M. V., and Guy, D. G. Visual acuity and blood lipids in term infants fed human milk or formulae. Lipids 1997;32(1):63-72. View abstract.

Innis, S. M., Gilley, J., and Werker, J. Are human milk long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids related to visual and neural development in breast-fed term infants? J Pediatr 2001;139(4):532-538. View abstract.

Innis, S. M., Nelson, C. M., Rioux, M. F., and King, D. J. Development of visual acuity in relation to plasma and erythrocyte omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids in healthy term gestation infants. Am J Clin Nutr 1994;60(3):347-352. View abstract.

Jans, L. A., Giltay, E. J., and Van der Does, A. J. The efficacy of n-3 fatty acids DHA and EPA (fish oil) for perinatal depression. Br J Nutr 2010;104(11):1577-1585. View abstract.

Jensen, C. L., Voigt, R. G., Llorente, A. M., Peters, S. U., Prager, T. C., Zou, Y. L., Rozelle, J. C., Turcich, M. R., Fraley, J. K., Anderson, R. E., and Heird, W. C. Effects of early maternal docosahexaenoic acid intake on neuropsychological status and visual acuity at five years of age of breast-fed term infants. J Pediatr 2010;157(6):900-905. View abstract.

Jensen, C. L., Voigt, R. G., Prager, T. C., Zou, Y. L., Fraley, J. K., Rozelle, J. C., Turcich, M. R., Llorente, A. M., Anderson, R. E., and Heird, W. C. Effects of maternal docosahexaenoic acid intake on visual function and neurodevelopment in breastfed term infants. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;82(1):125-132. View abstract.

Johnson, E. J. and Schaefer, E. J. Potential role of dietary n-3 fatty acids in the prevention of dementia and macular degeneration. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83(6 Suppl):1494S-1498S. View abstract.

Johnson, E. J., Chung, H. Y., Caldarella, S. M., and Snodderly, D. M. The influence of supplemental lutein and docosahexaenoic acid on serum, lipoproteins, and macular pigmentation. Am J Clin Nutr 2008;87(5):1521-1529. View abstract.

Johnson, E. J., McDonald, K., Caldarella, S. M., Chung, H. Y., Troen, A. M., and Snodderly, D. M. Cognitive findings of an exploratory trial of docosahexaenoic acid and lutein supplementation in older women. Nutr Neurosci 2008;11(2):75-83. View abstract.

Jorgensen, M. H., Hernell, O., Lund, P., Holmer, G., and Michaelsen, K. F. Visual acuity and erythrocyte docosahexaenoic acid status in breast-fed and formula-fed term infants during the first four months of life. Lipids 1996;31(1):99-105. View abstract.

Jude, S., Martel, E., Vincent, F., Besson, P., Couet, C., Ogilvie, G. K., Pinault, M., De, Chalendar C., Bougnoux, P., Richard, S., Champeroux, P., Crozatier, B., and Le Guennec, J. Y. Dietary long-chain n-3 fatty acids modify blood and cardiac phospholipids and reduce protein kinase-C-delta and protein kinase-C-epsilon translocation. Br J Nutr 2007;98(6):1143-1151. View abstract.

Judge, M. P., Harel, O., and Lammi-Keefe, C. J. A docosahexaenoic acid-functional food during pregnancy benefits infant visual acuity at four but not six months of age. Lipids 2007;42(2):117-122. View abstract.

Judge, M. P., Harel, O., and Lammi-Keefe, C. J. Maternal consumption of a docosahexaenoic acid-containing functional food during pregnancy: benefit for infant performance on problem-solving but not on recognition memory tasks at age 9 mo. Am J Clin Nutr 2007;85(6):1572-1577. View abstract.

Jumpsen, J. A., Brown, N. E., Thomson, A. B., Paul Man, S. F., Goh, Y. K., Ma, D., and Clandinin, M. T. Fatty acids in blood and intestine following docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in adults with cystic fibrosis. J Cyst.Fibros. 2006;5(2):77-84. View abstract.

Kelley, D. S., Siegel, D., Fedor, D. M., Adkins, Y., and Mackey, B. E. DHA supplementation decreases serum C-reactive protein and other markers of inflammation in hypertriglyceridemic men. J Nutr 2009;139(3):495-501. View abstract.

Kelley, D. S., Siegel, D., Vemuri, M., and Mackey, B. E. Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation improves fasting and postprandial lipid profiles in hypertriglyceridemic men. Am J Clin Nutr 2007;86(2):324-333. View abstract.

Kelley, D. S., Taylor, P. C., Nelson, G. J., and Mackey, B. E. Dietary docosahexaenoic acid and immunocompetence in young healthy men. Lipids 1998;33(6):559-566. View abstract.

Kelley, D. S., Taylor, P. C., Nelson, G. J., Schmidt, P. C., Ferretti, A., Erickson, K. L., Yu, R., Chandra, R. K., and Mackey, B. E. Docosahexaenoic acid ingestion inhibits natural killer cell activity and production of inflammatory mediators in young healthy men. Lipids 1999;34(4):317-324. View abstract.

Kennedy, D. O., Jackson, P. A., Elliott, J. M., Scholey, A. B., Robertson, B. C., Greer, J., Tiplady, B., Buchanan, T., and Haskell, C. F. Cognitive and mood effects of 8 weeks' supplementation with 400 mg or 1000 mg of the omega-3 essential fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in healthy children aged 10-12 years. Nutr Neurosci 2009;12(2):48-56. View abstract.

Kew, S., Mesa, M. D., Tricon, S., Buckley, R., Minihane, A. M., and Yaqoob, P. Effects of oils rich in eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids on immune cell composition and function in healthy humans. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;79(4):674-681. View abstract.

Khedr, E. M., Farghaly, W. M., Amry, Sel, and Osman, A. A. Neural maturation of breastfed and formula-fed infants. Acta Paediatr. 2004;93(6):734-738. View abstract.

Kim, J. G. and Parthasarathy, S. Oxidation and the spermatozoa. Semin.Reprod.Endocrinol 1998;16(4):235-239. View abstract.

Kimura, S., Saito, H., Minami, M., Togashi, H., Nakamura, N., Ueno, K., Shimamura, K., Nemoto, M., and Parvez, H. Docosahexaenoic acid attenuated hypertension and vascular dementia in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats. Neurotoxicol.Teratol. 2002;24(5):683-693. View abstract.

Koch, C., Dolle, S., Metzger, M., Rasche, C., Jungclas, H., Ruhl, R., Renz, H., and Worm, M. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) supplementation in atopic eczema: a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. Br J Dermatol 2008;158(4):786-792. View abstract.

Koletzko, B., Beblo, S., Demmelmair, H., and Hanebutt, F. L. Omega-3 LC-PUFA supply and neurological outcomes in children with phenylketonuria (PKU). J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2009;48 Suppl 1:S2-S7. View abstract.

Koletzko, B., Larque, E., and Demmelmair, H. Placental transfer of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA). J Perinat.Med 2007;35 Suppl 1:S5-11. View abstract.

Kris-Etherton, P. M., Taylor, D. S., Yu-Poth, S., Huth, P., Moriarty, K., Fishell, V., Hargrove, R. L., Zhao, G., and Etherton, T. D. Polyunsaturated fatty acids in the food chain in the United States. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71(1 Suppl):179S-188S. View abstract.

Kroes, R., Schaefer, E. J., Squire, R. A., and Williams, G. M. A review of the safety of DHA45-oil. Food Chem Toxicol. 2003;41(11):1433-1446. View abstract.

Lagarde, M., Bernoud, N., Brossard, N., Lemaitre-Delaunay, D., Thies, F., Croset, M., and Lecerf, J. Lysophosphatidylcholine as a preferred carrier form of docosahexaenoic acid to the brain. J.Mol.Neurosci. 2001;16(2-3):201-204. View abstract.

Lapillonne, A., Brossard, N., Claris, O., Reygrobellet, B., and Salle, B. L. Erythrocyte fatty acid composition in term infants fed human milk or a formula enriched with a low eicosapentanoic acid fish oil for 4 months. Eur J Pediatr 2000;159(1-2):49-53. View abstract.

Larque, E., Demmelmair, H., Berger, B., Hasbargen, U., and Koletzko, B. In vivo investigation of the placental transfer of (13)C-labeled fatty acids in humans. J Lipid Res 2003;44(1):49-55. View abstract.

Larque, E., Krauss-Etschmann, S., Campoy, C., Hartl, D., Linde, J., Klingler, M., Demmelmair, H., Cano, A., Gil, A., Bondy, B., and Koletzko, B. Docosahexaenoic acid supply in pregnancy affects placental expression of fatty acid transport proteins. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;84(4):853-861. View abstract.

Lauritzen, L., Jorgensen, M. H., Olsen, S. F., Straarup, E. M., and Michaelsen, K. F. Maternal fish oil supplementation in lactation: effect on developmental outcome in breast-fed infants. Reprod.Nutr Dev. 2005;45(5):535-547. View abstract.

Lee, J. Y., Plakidas, A., Lee, W. H., Heikkinen, A., Chanmugam, P., Bray, G., and Hwang, D. H. Differential modulation of Toll-like receptors by fatty acids: preferential inhibition by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Lipid Res 2003;44(3):479-486. View abstract.

Lien, E. L. Toxicology and safety of DHA. Prostaglandins Leukot.Essent.Fatty Acids 2009;81(2-3):125-132. View abstract.

Llorente, A. M., Jensen, C. L., Voigt, R. G., Fraley, J. K., Berretta, M. C., and Heird, W. C. Effect of maternal docosahexaenoic acid supplementation on postpartum depression and information processing. Am.J.Obstet.Gynecol. 2003;188(5):1348-1353. View abstract.

Lloyd-Still, J. D., Powers, C. A., Hoffman, D. R., Boyd-Trull, K., Lester, L. A., Benisek, D. C., and Arterburn, L. M. Bioavailability and safety of a high dose of docosahexaenoic acid triacylglycerol of algal origin in cystic fibrosis patients: a randomized, controlled study. Nutrition 2006;22(1):36-46. View abstract.

Lopez-Alarcon, M., Bernabe-Garcia, M., Del, Prado M., Rivera, D., Ruiz, G., Maldonado, J., and Villegas, R. Docosahexaenoic acid administered in the acute phase protects the nutritional status of septic neonates. Nutrition 2006;22(7-8):731-737. View abstract.

Lopez-Alarcon, M., Furuya-Meguro, M. M., Garcia-Zuniga, P. A., and Tadeo-Pulido, I. [The effect of docosahexaenoic acid on the loss of appetite in pediatric patients with pneumonia]. Rev Med Inst.Mex.Seguro.Soc 2006;44(1):5-11. View abstract.

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Lukiw, W. J. Docosahexaenoic acid and amyloid-beta peptide signaling in Alzheimer's disease. World Rev Nutr Diet 2009;99:55-70. View abstract.

Lukiw, W. J., Cui, J. G., Marcheselli, V. L., Bodker, M., Botkjaer, A., Gotlinger, K., Serhan, C. N., and Bazan, N. G. A role for docosahexaenoic acid-derived neuroprotectin D1 in neural cell survival and Alzheimer disease. J Clin Invest 2005;115(10):2774-2783. View abstract.

Maki, K. C., Van Elswyk, M. E., McCarthy, D., Hess, S. P., Veith, P. E., Bell, M., Subbaiah, P., and Davidson, M. H. Lipid responses to a dietary docosahexaenoic acid supplement in men and women with below average levels of high density lipoprotein cholesterol. J Am Coll Nutr 2005;24(3):189-199. View abstract.

Maki, K. C., Van Elswyk, M. E., McCarthy, D., Seeley, M. A., Veith, P. E., Hess, S. P., Ingram, K. A., Halvorson, J. J., Calaguas, E. M., and Davidson, M. H. Lipid responses in mildly hypertriglyceridemic men and women to consumption of docosahexaenoic acid-enriched eggs. Int.J.Vitam.Nutr.Res. 2003;73(5):357-368. View abstract.

Makrides, M., Gibson, R. A., McPhee, A. J., Collins, C. T., Davis, P. G., Doyle, L. W., Simmer, K., Colditz, P. B., Morris, S., Smithers, L. G., Willson, K., and Ryan, P. Neurodevelopmental outcomes of preterm infants fed high-dose docosahexaenoic acid: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1-14-2009;301(2):175-182. View abstract.

Makrides, M., Gibson, R. A., McPhee, A. J., Yelland, L., Quinlivan, J., and Ryan, P. Effect of DHA supplementation during pregnancy on maternal depression and neurodevelopment of young children: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 10-20-2010;304(15):1675-1683. View abstract.

Makrides, M., Gibson, R. A., Udell, T., and Ried, K. Supplementation of infant formula with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids does not influence the growth of term infants. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;81(5):1094-1101. View abstract.

Makrides, M., Neumann, M. A., Simmer, K., and Gibson, R. A. A critical appraisal of the role of dietary long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids on neural indices of term infants: a randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics 2000;105(1 Pt 1):32-38. View abstract.

Makrides, M., Neumann, M. A., Simmer, K., and Gibson, R. A. Dietary long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids do not influence growth of term infants: A randomized clinical trial. Pediatrics 1999;104(3 Pt 1):468-475. View abstract.

Makrides, M., Simmer, K., Goggin, M., and Gibson, R. A. Erythrocyte docosahexaenoic acid correlates with the visual response of healthy, term infants. Pediatr.Res. 1993;33(4 Pt 1):425-427. View abstract.

Malcolm, C. A., Hamilton, R., McCulloch, D. L., Montgomery, C., and Weaver, L. T. Scotopic electroretinogram in term infants born of mothers supplemented with docosahexaenoic acid during pregnancy. Invest Ophthalmol.Vis.Sci. 2003;44(8):3685-3691. View abstract.

Marangell, L. B., Suppes, T., Ketter, T. A., Dennehy, E. B., Zboyan, H., Kertz, B., Nierenberg, A., Calabrese, J., Wisniewski, S. R., and Sachs, G. Omega-3 fatty acids in bipolar disorder: clinical and research considerations. Prostaglandins Leukot.Essent.Fatty Acids 2006;75(4-5):315-321. View abstract.

Martins, J. G. EPA but not DHA appears to be responsible for the efficacy of omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in depression: evidence from a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Am Coll Nutr 2009;28(5):525-542. View abstract.

Mazurak, V. C., Lien, V., Field, C. J., Goruk, S. D., Pramuk, K., and Clandinin, M. T. Long-chain polyunsaturated fat supplementation in children with low docosahexaenoic acid intakes alters immune phenotypes compared with placebo. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2008;46(5):570-579. View abstract.

McNamara, R. K., Able, J., Jandacek, R., Rider, T., Tso, P., Eliassen, J. C., Alfieri, D., Weber, W., Jarvis, K., DelBello, M. P., Strakowski, S. M., and Adler, C. M. Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation increases prefrontal cortex activation during sustained attention in healthy boys: a placebo-controlled, dose-ranging, functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Am J Clin Nutr 2010;91(4):1060-1067. View abstract.

McNamara, R. K., Jandacek, R., Rider, T., Tso, P., Dwivedi, Y., and Pandey, G. N. Selective deficits in erythrocyte docosahexaenoic acid composition in adult patients with bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder. J Affect.Disord 2010;126(1-2):303-311. View abstract.

Mebarek, S., Ermak, N., Benzaria, A., Vicca, S., Dubois, M., Nemoz, G., Laville, M., Lacour, B., Vericel, E., Lagarde, M., and Prigent, A. F. Effects of increasing docosahexaenoic acid intake in human healthy volunteers on lymphocyte activation and monocyte apoptosis. Br J Nutr 2009;101(6):852-858. View abstract.

Meyer, B. J., Hammervold, T., Rustan, A. C., and Howe, P. R. Dose-dependent effects of docosahexaenoic acid supplementation on blood lipids in statin-treated hyperlipidaemic subjects. Lipids 2007;42(2):109-115. View abstract.

Michael-Titus, A. T. Omega-3 fatty acids and neurological injury. Prostaglandins Leukot.Essent.Fatty Acids 2007;77(5-6):295-300. View abstract.

Mickleborough, T. D., Tecklenburg, S. L., Montgomery, G. S., and Lindley, M. R. Eicosapentaenoic acid is more effective than docosahexaenoic acid in inhibiting proinflammatory mediator production and transcription from LPS-induced human asthmatic alveolar macrophage cells. Clin Nutr 2009;28(1):71-77. View abstract.

Miller, C., Yamaguchi, R. Y., and Ziboh, V. A. Guinea pig epidermis generates putative anti-inflammatory metabolites from fish oil polyunsaturated fatty acids. Lipids 1989;24(12):998-1003. View abstract.

Milte, C. M., Coates, A. M., Buckley, J. D., Hill, A. M., and Howe, P. R. Dose-dependent effects of docosahexaenoic acid-rich fish oil on erythrocyte docosahexaenoic acid and blood lipid levels. Br J Nutr 2008;99(5):1083-1088. View abstract.

Mischoulon, D., Best-Popescu, C., Laposata, M., Merens, W., Murakami, J. L., Wu, S. L., Papakostas, G. I., Dording, C. M., Sonawalla, S. B., Nierenberg, A. A., Alpert, J. E., and Fava, M. A double-blind dose-finding pilot study of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) for major depressive disorder. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2008;18(9):639-645. View abstract.

Mitmesser, S. H. and Jensen, C. L. Roles of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the term infant: developmental benefits. Neonatal Netw. 2007;26(4):229-234. View abstract.

Moore, S. A. Polyunsaturated fatty acid synthesis and release by brain-derived cells in vitro. J Mol Neurosci 2001;16(2-3):195-200. View abstract.

Moore, S. A., Hurt, E., Yoder, E., Sprecher, H., and Spector, A. A. Docosahexaenoic acid synthesis in human skin fibroblasts involves peroxisomal retroconversion of tetracosahexaenoic acid. J.Lipid Res. 1995;36(11):2433-2443. View abstract.

Mori, T. A., Bao, D. Q., Burke, V., Puddey, I. B., and Beilin, L. J. Docosahexaenoic acid but not eicosapentaenoic acid lowers ambulatory blood pressure and heart rate in humans. Hypertension 1999;34(2):253-260. View abstract.

Mori, T. A., Watts, G. F., Burke, V., Hilme, E., Puddey, I. B., and Beilin, L. J. Differential effects of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid on vascular reactivity of the forearm microcirculation in hyperlipidemic, overweight men. Circulation 9-12-2000;102(11):1264-1269. View abstract.

Mori, T. A., Woodman, R. J., Burke, V., Puddey, I. B., Croft, K. D., and Beilin, L. J. Effect of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid on oxidative stress and inflammatory markers in treated-hypertensive type 2 diabetic subjects. Free Radic.Biol Med 10-1-2003;35(7):772-781. View abstract.

Mucke, L. and Pitas, R. E. Food for thought: essential fatty acid protects against neuronal deficits in transgenic mouse model of AD. Neuron 9-2-2004;43(5):596-599. View abstract.

Mukherjee, P. K., Chawla, A., Loayza, M. S., and Bazan, N. G. Docosanoids are multifunctional regulators of neural cell integrity and fate: significance in aging and disease. Prostaglandins Leukot.Essent.Fatty Acids 2007;77(5-6):233-238. View abstract.

Mullen, A., Loscher, C. E., and Roche, H. M. Anti-inflammatory effects of EPA and DHA are dependent upon time and dose-response elements associated with LPS stimulation in THP-1-derived macrophages. J Nutr Biochem 2010;21(5):444-450. View abstract.

Neff, L. M., Culiner, J., Cunningham-Rundles, S., Seidman, C., Meehan, D., Maturi, J., Wittkowski, K. M., Levine, B., and Breslow, J. L. Algal docosahexaenoic acid affects plasma lipoprotein particle size distribution in overweight and obese adults. J Nutr 2011;141(2):207-213. View abstract.

Nestel, P., Shige, H., Pomeroy, S., Cehun, M., Abbey, M., and Raederstorff, D. The n-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid increase systemic arterial compliance in humans. Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 2002;76(2):326-330. View abstract.

Nobili, V., Bedogni, G., Alisi, A., Pietrobattista, A., Rise, P., Galli, C., and Agostoni, C. Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation decreases liver fat content in children with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: double-blind randomised controlled clinical trial. Arch Dis Child 2011;96(4):350-353. View abstract.

O'Brien, D. M., Kristal, A. R., Jeannet, M. A., Wilkinson, M. J., Bersamin, A., and Luick, B. Red blood cell delta15N: a novel biomarker of dietary eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid intake. Am J Clin Nutr 2009;89(3):913-919. View abstract.

O'Shea, K. M., Khairallah, R. J., Sparagna, G. C., Xu, W., Hecker, P. A., Robillard-Frayne, I., Des, Rosiers C., Kristian, T., Murphy, R. C., Fiskum, G., and Stanley, W. C. Dietary omega-3 fatty acids alter cardiac mitochondrial phospholipid composition and delay Ca2+-induced permeability transition. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2009;47(6):819-827. View abstract.

Otto, S. J., van Houwelingen, A. C., and Hornstra, G. The effect of supplementation with docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acid derived from single cell oils on plasma and erythrocyte fatty acids of pregnant women in the second trimester. Prostaglandins Leukot.Essent.Fatty Acids 2000;63(5):323-328. View abstract.

Park, Y. and Harris, W. S. Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation accelerates chylomicron triglyceride clearance. J Lipid Res 2003;44(3):455-463. View abstract.

Park, Y., Jones, P. G., and Harris, W. S. Triacylglycerol-rich lipoprotein margination: a potential surrogate for whole-body lipoprotein lipase activity and effects of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80(1):45-50. View abstract.

Pastor, N., Soler, B., Mitmesser, S. H., Ferguson, P., and Lifschitz, C. Infants fed docosahexaenoic acid- and arachidonic acid-supplemented formula have decreased incidence of bronchiolitis/bronchitis the first year of life. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2006;45(9):850-855. View abstract.

Pifferi, F., Jouin, M., Alessandri, J. M., Haedke, U., Roux, F., Perriere, N., Denis, I., Lavialle, M., and Guesnet, P. n-3 Fatty acids modulate brain glucose transport in endothelial cells of the blood-brain barrier. Prostaglandins Leukot.Essent.Fatty Acids 2007;77(5-6):279-286. View abstract.

Plourde, M., Chouinard-Watkins, R., Vandal, M., Zhang, Y., Lawrence, P., Brenna, J. T., and Cunnane, S. C. Plasma incorporation, apparent retroconversion and beta-oxidation of 13C-docosahexaenoic acid in the elderly. Nutr Metab (Lond) 2011;8:5. View abstract.

Querques, G., Benlian, P., Chanu, B., Portal, C., Coscas, G., Soubrane, G., and Souied, E. H. Nutritional AMD treatment phase I (NAT-1): feasibility of oral DHA supplementation in age-related macular degeneration. Eur J Ophthalmol 2009;19(1):100-106. View abstract.

Quinn, J. F., Raman, R., Thomas, R. G., Yurko-Mauro, K., Nelson, E. B., Van, Dyck C., Galvin, J. E., Emond, J., Jack, C. R., Jr., Weiner, M., Shinto, L., and Aisen, P. S. Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation and cognitive decline in Alzheimer disease: a randomized trial. JAMA 11-3-2010;304(17):1903-1911. View abstract.

Ramakrishnan, U., Stein, A. D., Parra-Cabrera, S., Wang, M., Imhoff-Kunsch, B., Juarez-Marquez, S., Rivera, J., and Martorell, R. Effects of docosahexaenoic acid supplementation during pregnancy on gestational age and size at birth: randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in Mexico. Food Nutr Bull 2010;31(2 Suppl):S108-S116. View abstract.

Rambjor, G. S., Walen, A. I., Windsor, S. L., and Harris, W. S. Eicosapentaenoic acid is primarily responsible for hypotriglyceridemic effect of fish oil in humans. Lipids 1996;31 Suppl:S45-S49. View abstract.

Rees, A. M., Austin, M. P., and Parker, G. B. Omega-3 fatty acids as a treatment for perinatal depression: randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2008;42(3):199-205. View abstract.

Rodriguez, A., Raederstorff, D., Sarda, P., Lauret, C., Mendy, F., and Descomps, B. Preterm infant formula supplementation with alpha linolenic acid and docosahexaenoic acid. Eur.J.Clin.Nutr. 2003;57(6):727-734. View abstract.

Rogers, P. J., Appleton, K. M., Kessler, D., Peters, T. J., Gunnell, D., Hayward, R. C., Heatherley, S. V., Christian, L. M., McNaughton, S. A., and Ness, A. R. No effect of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (EPA and DHA) supplementation on depressed mood and cognitive function: a randomised controlled trial. Br J Nutr 2008;99(2):421-431. View abstract.

Rondanelli, M., Opizzi, A., Faliva, M., Mozzoni, M., Antoniello, N., Cazzola, R., Savare, R., Cerutti, R., Grossi, E., and Cestaro, B. Effects of a diet integration with an oily emulsion of DHA-phospholipids containing melatonin and tryptophan in elderly patients suffering from mild cognitive impairment. Nutr.Neurosci. 2012;15(2):46-54. View abstract.

Ryan, A. S. and Nelson, E. B. Assessing the effect of docosahexaenoic acid on cognitive functions in healthy, preschool children: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2008;47(4):355-362. View abstract.

Sanders, T. A. Polyunsaturated fatty acids in the food chain in Europe. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71(1 Suppl):176S-178S. View abstract.

Sanders, T. A., Gleason, K., Griffin, B., and Miller, G. J. Influence of an algal triacylglycerol containing docosahexaenoic acid (22 : 6n-3) and docosapentaenoic acid (22 : 5n-6) on cardiovascular risk factors in healthy men and women. Br J Nutr 2006;95(3):525-531. View abstract.

SanGiovanni, J. P., Chew, E. Y., Agron, E., Clemons, T. E., Ferris, F. L., III, Gensler, G., Lindblad, A. S., Milton, R. C., Seddon, J. M., Klein, R., and Sperduto, R. D. The relationship of dietary omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid intake with incident age-related macular degeneration: AREDS report no. 23. Arch Ophthalmol 2008;126(9):1274-1279. View abstract.

SanGiovanni, J. P., Parra-Cabrera, S., Colditz, G. A., Berkey, C. S., and Dwyer, J. T. Meta-analysis of dietary essential fatty acids and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids as they relate to visual resolution acuity in healthy preterm infants. Pediatrics 2000;105(6):1292-1298. View abstract.

Sawazaki, S., Hamazaki, T., Yazawa, K., and Kobayashi, M. The effect of docosahexaenoic acid on plasma catecholamine concentrations and glucose tolerance during long-lasting psychological stress: a double-blind placebo-controlled study. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol.(Tokyo) 1999;45(5):655-665. View abstract.

Schaefer, E. J., Bongard, V., Beiser, A. S., Lamon-Fava, S., Robins, S. J., Au, R., Tucker, K. L., Kyle, D. J., Wilson, P. W., and Wolf, P. A. Plasma phosphatidylcholine docosahexaenoic acid content and risk of dementia and Alzheimer disease: the Framingham Heart Study. Arch Neurol. 2006;63(11):1545-1550. View abstract.

Schwellenbach, L. J., Olson, K. L., McConnell, K. J., Stolcpart, R. S., Nash, J. D., and Merenich, J. A. The triglyceride-lowering effects of a modest dose of docosahexaenoic acid alone versus in combination with low dose eicosapentaenoic acid in patients with coronary artery disease and elevated triglycerides. J Am Coll Nutr 2006;25(6):480-485. View abstract.

Scott, D. T., Janowsky, J. S., Carroll, R. E., Taylor, J. A., Auestad, N., and Montalto, M. B. Formula supplementation with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids: are there developmental benefits? Pediatrics 1998;102(5):E59. View abstract.

Sempels, C. and Sienaert, P. [The role of omega-3 fatty acids in the treatment of bipolar disorders: the current situation]. Tijdschr.Psychiatr. 2007;49(9):639-647. View abstract.

Siddiqui, R. A., Harvey, K., and Stillwell, W. Anticancer properties of oxidation products of docosahexaenoic acid. Chem Phys Lipids 2008;153(1):47-56. View abstract.

Siddiqui, R. A., Shaikh, S. R., Sech, L. A., Yount, H. R., Stillwell, W., and Zaloga, G. P. Omega 3-fatty acids: health benefits and cellular mechanisms of action. Mini.Rev Med Chem 2004;4(8):859-871. View abstract.

Silvers, K. M., Woolley, C. C., Hamilton, F. C., Watts, P. M., and Watson, R. A. Randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial of fish oil in the treatment of depression. Prostaglandins Leukot.Essent.Fatty Acids 2005;72(3):211-218. View abstract.

Simopoulos, A. P. Human requirement for N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Poult.Sci 2000;79(7):961-970. View abstract.

Smithers, L. G., Collins, C. T., Simmonds, L. A., Gibson, R. A., McPhee, A., and Makrides, M. Feeding preterm infants milk with a higher dose of docosahexaenoic acid than that used in current practice does not influence language or behavior in early childhood: a follow-up study of a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2010;91(3):628-634. View abstract.

Smithers, L. G., Gibson, R. A., and Makrides, M. Maternal supplementation with docosahexaenoic acid during pregnancy does not affect early visual development in the infant: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2011;93(6):1293-1299. View abstract.

Smithers, L. G., Gibson, R. A., McPhee, A., and Makrides, M. Higher dose of docosahexaenoic acid in the neonatal period improves visual acuity of preterm infants: results of a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2008;88(4):1049-1056. View abstract.

Stanke-Labesque, F., Moliere, P., Bessard, J., Laville, M., Vericel, E., and Lagarde, M. Effect of dietary supplementation with increasing doses of docosahexaenoic acid on neutrophil lipid composition and leukotriene production in human healthy volunteers. Br J Nutr 2008;100(4):829-833. View abstract.

Stark, K. D. and Holub, B. J. Differential eicosapentaenoic acid elevations and altered cardiovascular disease risk factor responses after supplementation with docosahexaenoic acid in postmenopausal women receiving and not receiving hormone replacement therapy. Am.J.Clin.Nutr. 2004;79(5):765-773. View abstract.

Stein, A. D., Wang, M., Martorell, R., Neufeld, L. M., Flores-Ayala, R., Rivera, J. A., and Ramakrishnan, U. Growth to age 18 months following prenatal supplementation with docosahexaenoic acid differs by maternal gravidity in Mexico. J Nutr 2011;141(2):316-320. View abstract.

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Docosahexaenoic Acid: Health Benefits, Side Effects, Uses, Dose & Precautions (2024)

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